Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution | class 9 History chapter 2 - Notes & Timeline

Who Were the Liberals?

• Liberals were people who wanted to modernize society and believed in individual freedom.
• Liberals wanted a nation that tolerated all religions.
• At that time, most European states favoured one religion over others:
  • Britain favoured the Church of England, while Austria and Spain supported the Catholic Church.
• Liberals opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
• They wanted to protect individual rights from interference by governments.
• Liberals supported:
  • Elected, representative parliamentary government
  • Laws interpreted by an independent judiciary
• However, they were not democrats in the modern sense:
  • They did not support universal adult franchise.
  • They believed only men with property should have voting rights.
  • They were against giving voting rights to women.

Who Were the Radicals?

• The radicals were the group of people who believed that the government should be based on the majority of the population of a country.
• Radicals also supported change, but their views were more extreme than the liberals.
• They wanted a nation where the government represented the majority of the population.
• Radicals:
  • Supported women’s suffragette movements (the demand for women’s right to vote).
  • Opposed privileges enjoyed by big landowners and factory owners.
  • Were not against private property, but opposed its concentration in the hands of a few.

Who Were the Conservatives?

• Conservatives believed in protecting the traditional institutions of society, such as monarchy and the Church.
• Conservatives were originally against any kind of change.
• After the French Revolution, however, even conservatives had opened their minds to the need for change.
• However, they believed:
  • The past must be respected.
  • Change should happen slowly and carefully, not through revolution.

(i) Features of Industrialisation

• The political ideas of liberals, radicals, and conservatives appeared alongside deep social and economic changes in Europe.
• A new industrial society was emerging. New cities developed, and industrial regions expanded.
• Railways were built, and the Industrial Revolution made a huge impact on the economy and daily life.
• With industrialisation, men, women, and children were brought into factories to work.

(ii) Living and Working Conditions of Workers

• Workers had to work long hours, often in poor conditions.
• Wages were very low, and during periods of reduced demand for industrial goods, unemployment increased.
• Housing and sanitation were problems since towns were growing rapidly.
• Liberals and radicals, many of whom were also industrialists or property owners, searched for solutions to these problems.

(iii) Role of Liberals and Radicals

• Most industries were owned by individuals.
• Liberals and radicals themselves were often property owners or employers.
• They had made wealth through trade or industry, and they believed in encouraging such effort.
• They felt that society would benefit if:
  • The workforce in the economy was healthy
  • Citizens were educated
• These groups opposed the special privileges that the old aristocracy had by birth.
• They believed in individual effort, labour, and enterprise.
• According to them, if individual freedom was protected, and capital could operate freely, society would develop.
• Many working men and women who wanted change also supported liberal and radical parties.

(iv) Nationalist Movements and Revolutions

• After 1815, many liberals, radicals, and nationalists took part in revolutionary activities.
• They wanted to end the old form of monarchy that existed in Europe.
• In countries like France, Italy, Germany, and Russia, these revolutionaries:
  • Opposed monarchy
  • Worked to create nations with equal rights for all citizens
• An important revolutionary was Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist.
• He conspired with others to bring revolution in Italy.
• Indian nationalists also read his writings and were influenced by these ideas.

(i) Vision of a New Society

• One of the most far-reaching visions of how society should be organised came from the idea of socialism.
• By the mid-nineteenth century, socialism had become a well-known body of ideas in Europe.
• It attracted widespread attention, especially from those who were unhappy with the injustices of capitalist society.

(ii) Socialist Views on Private Property

• Socialists were opposed to private property.
• They believed that private property was the root cause of social problems of that time.
• The reason was that individuals owned property, which provided employment, but they were only concerned with personal profit, not the welfare of workers.
• Socialists believed that if society as a whole controlled property, then more attention would be paid to collective social interests.
• Therefore, socialists campaigned for the end of private property and collective ownership of productive assets.

(iii) Different Visions of Socialist Society

• Socialists had different visions for a future socialist society.
• Some believed in the idea of cooperatives:
• For example, Robert Owen (1771–1858), a leading English manufacturer, tried to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana (USA).
• Others thought cooperatives needed government help:
• Louis Blanc (1813–1882) of France believed that the government should encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises.
• These cooperatives would be associations of people who would produce goods together and share profits based on the work done by each member.

(iv) Marxist Socialism: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

• Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) added more ideas to socialism.
• Marx believed that industrial society was capitalist:
• Capitalists owned the capital invested in factories.
• The profit was created by workers, but this profit was accumulated by capitalists.
• As long as private capitalists controlled property, the condition of workers would not improve.
• Marx believed that workers had to overthrow capitalism and private property.
• He advocated the creation of a socialist society where all property was collectively owned.
• Marx called this a communist society — a society free from exploitation.
• He was convinced that workers would eventually defeat the capitalists and bring about a new future.

(i) Spread of Socialist Ideas in Europe

• By the 1870s, the ideas of socialism spread across Europe.
• Socialists felt the need to coordinate their efforts and formed an international organisation called the Second International.

(ii) Formation of Worker Associations

• In countries like England and Germany, workers began forming associations.
• These associations aimed to:
  • Fight for better living and working conditions.
  • Reduction in working hours
  • They set up funds to help members in times of distress and demanded a reduction of working hours and the right to vote.

(iii) Socialism in Germany and Britain

• In Germany, worker associations worked closely with the Social Democratic Party (SPD).
• This helped the SPD to win parliamentary seats.
• In Britain, by 1905, socialists and trade unionists together formed the Labour Party.
• In France, a Socialist Party was also formed around this time.

(iv) Impact and Limitations

• Despite these developments, till 1914, socialists could not form a government in Europe.
• However, their ideas influenced legislation, and they gained strong presence in parliaments.
• Still, governments continued to be dominated by conservatives, liberals, and radicals, not by socialists.

(i) Introduction

• In most European countries, socialism influenced ideas and legislation, but did not lead to a socialist government.
• However, in Russia, this situation changed dramatically in 1917.
• Socialists took over the government through the October Revolution of 1917.
• This event came after the fall of the monarchy in February 1917, and both events together are normally called the Russian Revolution.
• To understand how this happened, we must look at the social and political conditions in Russia just before the revolution.

2.1 The Russian Empire in 1914

(i) Economic Backwardness of Russia

• In 1914, the Russian Empire was largely agricultural.
• About 85% of the population were agricultural workers (peasants).
• Compared to other European countries, this was much higher:
  • For example, in France and Germany, only 40% to 50% of the people worked in agriculture.
• Industry in Russia was found mostly in small pockets:
  • The St Petersburg and Moscow regions were major industrial zones.
• Factories were privately owned, and production was done with the help of modern machinery.

(ii) Growth of Industrial Sector

• Large factories were set up in the 1890s when foreign investment increased in Russia.
• Coal, iron, and steel production expanded significantly.
• Railway network was extended.
• Most of the factory workers were craftsmen who continued to use traditional methods.
• Many factories were modern in machinery, but old in production techniques.

(iii) Working Conditions in Industries

• Crafts units and small workshops - 15 hours.
• Factories - 10-12 hours.
• Some had strong links with the villages and others had settled in Cities Permanently.
• Workers divided by skill.
• Women made up 31% of the factory labour force, but they were paid' less than men.
• Divisions among workers showed themselves in dress and manners too.
• Some workers formed associations to help members in times of unemployment.
• Despite divisions, workers did unite to strike work (stop work) when they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions.
• Strikes took place frequently in the textile industry during 1896-1897, and in the metal industry during 1902.

(iv) Russian peasants were different from Europeon Peasant

• Produced together and divided the profit (commune - mir).
• Peasants in Russia were deeply religious, but they had no respect for the nobility.
• Wanted the land of the nobles.
• Refused to pay rent and murdered landlords.
• 1905s, murders were Common in Russia.

(i) Introduction of Socialist Ideas in Russia

• All political parties in Russia were illegal before 1914.
• Despite this, socialist ideas spread quickly in the country.
• By the 1890s, socialist thinkers began forming illegal associations and discussed the future of socialism in Russia.

(ii) The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party (1898)

• In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was formed.
• The party aimed to follow the ideas of Karl Marx and fight for the rights of workers.
• However, because of government policing, it had to operate as an illegal organisation.
• It set up a newspaper, mobilised workers and organised strikes.

(iii) The Socialist Revolutionary Party (1900)

• In 1900, another socialist group was formed: the Socialist Revolutionary Party.
• This party was mainly supported by peasants, not workers.
• It demanded that land belonging to nobles be transferred to peasants.
• Social Democrats disagreed with Socialist Revolutionaries about peasants.

(iv) Differences Among Socialists

• Socialists were divided on how a socialist society should be achieved.
• One group believed that Russia needed to develop into a capitalist society before socialism could be introduced.
• Others disagreed, believing that the existing peasant community could be the base of socialism.

(v) Split in the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party

• In 1912, the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party split into two groups:
  • Bolsheviks (majority group)
  • Mensheviks (minority group)
• The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, believed:
  • The party should be disciplined and controlled by a small, dedicated group.
  • The party should seize power quickly in the name of the workers.
• The Mensheviks believed:
  • The party should be open to all, like a mass organisation.
  • They supported a more democratic, slower path to socialism.

(i) Autocracy in Russia and Demand for Change

• Russia was an autocracy, meaning the Tsar held absolute power and was not answerable to any elected parliament, unlike rulers in other European countries.
• Liberals in Russia campaigned to end autocratic rule and demanded a constitution that would limit the Tsar’s powers.
• They were joined by:
  • Social Democrats (inspired by Marxist ideas)
  • Socialist Revolutionaries (supported mostly by peasants)
• These groups worked together with peasants and workers during the 1905 Revolution to push for political reforms.

(ii) Support from Nationalists and Muslim Reformers

• The revolutionary movement also received support from:
  • Nationalist groups in different regions of the Russian Empire — for example, Polish nationalists.
  • Muslim reformers called Jadidists in Muslim-dominated areas.
• They wanted to modernise Islam and believed that reformed religion could lead social change in their communities.

(iii) Workers’ Unrest and the Start of the 1905 Revolution

• The year 1904 was particularly hard for Russian workers:
• Prices of essential goods increased rapidly, causing real wages to fall by 20%.
• As a result, worker dissatisfaction grew, and many joined workers’ associations.
• A major incident triggered mass protests:
  • Four workers from the Assembly of Russian Workers (founded in 1904) were dismissed from the Putilov Iron Works.
  • This led to an industrial strike, and within a few days, over 110,000 workers in St Petersburg joined in.

(iv) Bloody Sunday and Nationwide Unrest

• On 22 January 1905, a peaceful procession of workers led by Father Gapon marched to the Winter Palace in St Petersburg.
• The workers demanded:
  • Reduction in working hours to eight hours
  • Better wages
  • Improved working conditions
• The Tsar was not present in the palace. Instead of being heard, the procession was attacked by the police and Cossack soldiers.
• Outcome of the event:
  • Over 100 workers were killed, and around 300 were wounded.
  • This tragic event came to be known as “Bloody Sunday”.
  • It triggered a series of strikes and protests across the country.

(v) The Spread of the 1905 Revolution

• Following Bloody Sunday, unrest spread across Russia:
• Universities shut down as student bodies walked out.
• Lawyers, doctors, engineers, and other middle-class professionals joined the movement.
• They formed a new body called the Union of Unions, which demanded a constituent assembly to create a constitution.
• The movement had broad support from various sections of society, including workers, professionals, peasants, and political groups.

(vi) Tsar’s Response and Temporary Reforms

• Under pressure from the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar allowed the formation of a Duma (a consultative parliament, not a full legislative body).
• For a short time:
  • Many trade unions and factory committees emerged and participated in organising workers.
• However, these democratic reforms were short-lived:
  • After 1905, most of these organisations were banned and forced to work underground.
  • Severe restrictions were imposed on political activities.

(vii) Suppression of the Duma and Conservative Control

• The Tsar dissolved the first Duma within 75 days of its creation.
• The second Duma was also dismissed within three months.
• Determined to maintain autocratic power, the Tsar:
  • Changed voting laws to reduce liberal influence.
  • Packed the third Duma with conservative politicians.
  • Liberals and revolutionaries were systematically excluded from participating in governance.
• This showed that the Tsar had no real intention of sharing power or allowing true democratic reforms.

(i) The World at War – Who Fought Whom?

• In 1914, war broke out between two powerful European alliances:
  • Central Powers – Germany, Austria, and Turkey
  • Allied Powers – France, Britain, and Russia (later joined by Italy and Romania)
• Since each of these countries had global empires, the war was fought not just in Europe, but also outside it.
• This is why it came to be known as the First World War.

(ii) Initial Public Support for the Tsar

• At the start, the war was popular in Russia. People united behind Tsar Nicholas II.
• However, as the war dragged on, the Tsar refused to involve the main political parties in the Duma, which weakened public support.
• There was growing anti-German sentiment:
  • The city of St Petersburg, which had a German name, was renamed Petrograd to sound more Russian.
  • The Tsarina, Alexandra, had German origins and relied heavily on Rasputin, a controversial monk with poor reputation—this further damaged the image of the Tsarist regime.

(iii) Battles on the Eastern Front – Moving Armies, Massive Losses

• On the Western Front (France), armies fought from trenches in a fixed position.
• But on the Eastern Front (Russia, Germany, Austria), armies moved around more, causing large-scale battles with huge casualties.
• Between 1914 and 1916, Russia lost heavily in battles against Germany and Austria.
• By 1917, over 7 million soldiers had become casualties (killed, wounded, or missing).
• As the Russian army retreated, they destroyed their own crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from using them.
• Over 3 million refugees fled within Russia and public anger increased against the government.

(iv) Impact of the War on Russia’s Economy and Industry

• Russia had few industries, and due to German control of the Baltic Sea, it was cut off from international trade and supplies.
• Industrial machines and tools wore out quickly and could not be replaced.
• By 1916, railway systems began to break down.
• Labour shortages worsened as most able-bodied men were sent to the frontlines.
• Small workshops making essentials were shut down.
• Large quantities of food grain were diverted to the army.

City Life Crisis: Food Shortage and Riots

• With most resources going to war, bread and flour became scarce in cities.
• By the winter of 1916, riots broke out at bread shops as people struggled to survive.
• This added to the widespread discontent against the Tsar’s regime.

A. Divided Capital – Petrograd in 1917

• In winter 1917, the Russian capital Petrograd was filled with tension and hardship.
• The city showed sharp social divisions:
  • Right Bank of River Neva: Industrial areas, workers’ quarters, large factories
  • Left Bank: Government buildings, Winter Palace, elite residences, and the Duma
• Severe frost and snow worsened transport and food supply.
• Bread and flour shortages hit working-class areas hardest.
• The Duma resisted the Tsar’s attempts to dismiss it, adding to unrest.

B. The Beginning of the Uprising

A. The Provisional Government and the Soviets

• After the abdication of the Tsar, the Provisional Government was formed.
• Liberals and socialists (including army officials, landowners, and industrialists) were part of it.
• The new government aimed to hold elections and set up an elected democratic system.
• It lifted restrictions on:
  • Public meetings
  • Political associations
• At the same time, Soviets (workers’ and soldiers’ councils) were formed in many towns.
• However, there was no common election system used to form them.

B. Lenin Returns and Introduces Radical Demands

C. Rising Worker and Peasant Movements

A. Rising Tensions Between Bolsheviks and Provisional Government

• After the February Revolution, tensions between the Provisional Government and Bolsheviks grew stronger.
• Lenin feared that the Provisional Government might turn into a military dictatorship to maintain its power.
• In September 1917, Lenin began secret discussions for organising an armed uprising to overthrow the government.

B. Mobilising Support

• Bolshevik supporters were mobilised across the army, Soviets, and factories.
• Lenin worked carefully to build strong grassroots support before taking action.

C. Plans for a Seizure of Power

D. The October Uprising Begins

E. The Revolution Spreads Across Russia

• Inspired by Petrograd, uprisings broke out in other cities.
• The revolution was not entirely peaceful — in Moscow, there was intense fighting between pro- and anti-Bolshevik forces.
• By December 1917, the Bolsheviks had full control over the Moscow–Petrograd region.

A. Radical Changes Introduced by the Bolsheviks

B. From Bolsheviks to Communists

C. Control, Censorship, and Culture

(i) Soldiers Deserting the Army

• After the Bolsheviks announced land redistribution, the Russian army began to collapse.
• Why? Most soldiers were peasants, and they wanted to go home to claim land, not fight wars.
• As a result, mass desertions took place.

(ii) Opponents of the Bolsheviks

• Several groups opposed the Bolshevik Revolution:
  • Non-Bolshevik socialists
  • Liberals
  • Supporters of autocracy (monarchy)
• These groups:
  • Condemned the Bolshevik uprising
  • Formed military alliances, especially in south Russia
  • Their goal: Overthrow the Bolsheviks

Formation of Factions

• Reds: Bolsheviks, led by Lenin
• Whites: Pro-Tsarists and conservatives
• Greens: Socialist Revolutionaries and peasants
• These factions fought bitterly during 1918–1919, across different parts of the Russian empire.

Foreign Involvement in the War

• The Whites and Greens were supported by foreign powers:
• France, Britain, America, and Japan sent troops.
• Reason for support: These countries feared the spread of socialism in the world.

Chaos, Famine, and Violence

• The civil war caused:
  • Widespread famine
  • Looting and banditry
  • Lawlessness throughout the country
• Harsh actions by the Whites, like punishing peasants who had taken land, made them lose public support.

(iii) Bolshevik Victory and Challenges

• By January 1920, the Bolsheviks (Reds) had regained control over most of the Russian empire.
• How they succeeded:
  • Gained support of non-Russian nationalities
  • Allied with Muslim reformers (Jadidists)
• However: In some areas, cooperation failed:
  • For example, in Khiva (Central Asia):
  • Bolshevik colonists massacred local nationalists in the name of socialism.
  • This caused confusion and distrust among local people.

(iv) Formation of USSR

• In December 1922, the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was officially formed.
• The Bolsheviks:
  • Gave limited autonomy to various non-Russian nationalities
  • Hoped this would create unity and trust
• But there were problems:
  • Unpopular policies were forced on local governments
  • Example: Discouraging nomadic lifestyles in Central Asia
  • So, even though autonomy was promised, local discontent continued.

(i) Ownership Shift During the Civil War

• During the civil war period, the Bolsheviks continued to nationalise banks and industries.
• This meant:
  • Private ownership was abolished
  • All key economic sectors came under state control
• In agriculture:
  • Peasants were allowed to cultivate land taken from landlords.
  • The government used some confiscated land to demonstrate collective farming – where people worked together.

(ii) Introduction of Five-Year Plans

• A new system of centralised planning was introduced.
• Officials decided economic goals and prepared targets for a 5-year period.
• These plans were called Five-Year Plans.
• The first two Five-Year Plans were launched:
  • 1927–1932 (First Plan)
  • 1933–1938 (Second Plan)
• Purpose of the Plans:
  • Fix prices
  • Boost industrial growth
  • Develop heavy industries like oil, coal, and steel

(iii) Rapid Growth but Harsh Conditions

• The Plans led to economic growth:
  • Between 1929 and 1933, industrial production doubled for oil, coal, and steel.
  • New industrial cities emerged quickly.
  • For example, the steel city of Magnitogorsk was constructed in just 3 years.
• But working conditions were difficult:
  • In Magnitogorsk, workers suffered extreme hardships.
  • In one year alone, there were 550 work stoppages.
  • A famous complaint said:
    “In winter, at 40°C below zero, people had to climb down from the fourth floor and dash across the street just to reach the toilet!”

(iv) Education, Healthcare, and Childcare

• The Bolsheviks introduced major reforms to help workers and peasants:

• However, these improvements were not equally available to everyone.
• Government resources were limited, so the impact was uneven across regions.

Key Terms

(i) Grain Shortage and State Response (1927–1928)

• By 1927–1928, Soviet towns were suffering from acute grain shortages.
• The government had fixed the price at which peasants must sell grain.
• But many peasants refused to sell at such low prices, leading to a crisis in food supply.

Stalin's View:

• Stalin, who had become the leader after Lenin’s death, believed:
• Wealthy peasants (called kulaks) and traders were hoarding grain.
• They were speculating, i.e., waiting for prices to rise before selling.

Stalin’s Emergency Actions Begin

• In response, Stalin launched emergency raids:
• Party workers toured rural areas
• They confiscated grain, raided kulaks, and forced grain collections.

(ii) The Collectivisation Programme (1929–1931)

• Stalin believed the only way to solve the crisis was to modernise agriculture through collectivisation.
• What is Collectivisation?
  It is the process of combining small peasant farms into large, state-controlled farms (called kolkhoz).
• Reasons Stalin Gave:
  • Individual peasant plots were too small to modernise.
  • Machinery and industrial farming could only work on large farms.
  • Kulaks must be eliminated to ensure state control and equality.

Timeline of Events – Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution